The reciprocating engine

The engine is the heart of a car although it is normally hidden under the bonnet. The engine is exposed in a motorcycle but the detailed mechanisms are not visible. This chapter looks at these mechanisms.

Figure 1.1 shows a four-stroke cycle petrol engine with the various parts indicated. In a reciprocating engine a mixture of petrol and air burns explosively
in a narrow container when ignited. The piston then receives the combustion pressure, and the connecting rod and crankshaft mechanism converts this
pressure into rotation. This is the basic mechanism of a reciprocating engine.

The reciprocating mechanism was originally inherited from steam engines and has been used for more than 200 years. One of the earliest mechanisms using a piston and cylinder can be seen in a 1509 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci, the famous painter and scientist of the Renaissance period. There are two main types of reciprocating engine, the four-stroke and the two-stroke
engine. Figure 1.2 illustrates the sequence of operation. The four-strokecycle engine rapidly repeats strokes 1 to 4.1















The science and technology of materials in automotive engines
Hiroshi Yamagata
Woodhead Publishing and Maney Publishing
on behalf of
The Institute of Materials, Minerals & Mining
CRC Press
Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC
WOODHEAD PUBLISHING LIMITED
Cambridge England






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  • car engine sounds noisy

    Characteristics of a healthy car, of course marked by smooth-sounding engine noise. But if you start hearing strange noises that originates on the machine, you should check out. Because the voices may be annoying in driving comfort. If the engine begins to sound, that is a sure sign of damage in that section.


    Here are some sources of damage:
    1. Voice squeaked a brief in the cylinder head. The reason: the piston scraping the cylinder wall, a broken piston body, piston rod installation error, or less oil.
    2. Antarlogam pounding pounding sound (when the machine gets a load or accelerated). If his voice regularly, sliding bearings of the crankshaft is worn. Similarly, if her voice does not irregular and sharp, bearing seat (thrust bearing) is worn.
    3. Metallic knocking sound heard when the machine twice with no load. The reason: the piston pin is worn or loose.
    4. Clatter at no load or accelerated rounds. The reason: low-octane gasoline, carbon deposits, time is too fast ignition. To repair: replace gasoline with higher octane, clean carbon deposits, and the ignition time set correctly.
    5. Vibrating sound during acceleration. The reason: piston ring or cylinder walls are worn or broken piston ring of low voltage.
    6. Pounding or throbbing sound that slowly as the piston rises. Cause: worn bearings in the piston, piston rod mounting errors, less oil.
    7. The click-click basis. The reason: the movement of the valve. To repair: do gap setting free the valve to the garage.





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  • Valve failure concerns

    Valve wear has been a small but serious problem to engine designers and manufacturers for many years. It has been described as ‘One of the most perplexing wear problems in internal combustion engines Although new valve materials and production techniques are constantly being
    developed, these advances have been outpaced by demands for increased engine performance. These demands include:
    higher horsepower-to-weight ratio;
    lower specific fuel consumption;
    environmental considerations such as emissions reduction;
    extended durability (increased time between servicing).

    The drive for reduced oil consumption and exhaust emissions has led to a reduction in the
    amount of lubricant present in the air stream in automotive diesel engines, and the effort
    to lengthen service intervals has resulted in an increasingly contaminated lubricant. These
    changes have led to an increase in the wear of inlet valves and seat inserts.
    Lead, originally added to petrol to increase the octane number, was found to form
    compounds during combustion that proved to be excellent lubricants, significantly
    reducing valve and seat wear. Leaded petrol, however, has now been phased out in the
    UK (since the end of 1999). As an alternative, lead replacement petrol (LRP) has been
    developed. This contains anti-wear additives based on alkali metals such as
    phosphorus, sodium, and potassium. Results of tests run using LRP containing such
    additives, however, have shown that, as yet, lead is unchallenged in providing the best
    protection. In several countries where LRP has already been introduced, a high
    Automotive Engine Valve Recession incidence of exhaust valve burn has been recorded. In Sweden the occurrence of valve burn problems has increased by 500 per cent since LRP was introduced in 1992 [2].

    The suspected cause of the valve burn problems is incomplete valve-to-valve seat
    sealing as a result of valve seat recession (VSR). The occurrence of VSR is blamed on
    hot corrosion – an accelerated attack of protective oxide films that occurs in
    combustion environments where low levels of alkali and/or other trace elements are
    present. A wide range of high-temperature alloys are susceptible to hot corrosion,
    including nickel- and cobalt-based alloys, which are used extensively as exhaust valve
    materials or as wear-resistant coatings on valves or seats. Materials used for engine
    components have always been designed to resist corrosive attack by lead salts. No such
    development has taken place to form materials resistant to alkali metals or other
    additive chemistries. It is clear that LRP will not provide an immediate solution to the
    valve wear issue, which is likely to cause tension between car manufacturers and
    owners for some time to come. 

    The impending reductions in the sulphur content of diesel fuel and the introduction of
    alternative fuels, such as gas, will also have implications for valve and seat insert wear.
    Dynamometer engine testing is often employed to investigate valve wear problems.
    This is expensive and time consuming, and does not necessarily help in finding the
    actual cause of the wear. Valve wear involves so many variables that it is impossible to
    confirm precise, individual quantitative evaluations of all of them during such testing.
    In addition, the understanding of wear mechanisms is complicated by inconsistent
    patterns of valve failure. For example, failure may occur in only a single valve
    operating in a multi-valve cylinder. Furthermore, the apparent mode of failure may
    vary from one valve to another in the same cylinder or between cylinders in the same
    engine. An example of such inconsistency is shown in Fig. 1.3. This illustrates exhaust
    valve recession values for four cylinders in the same engine (measurements taken on the cylinder head).

    The valve in cylinder 1 has recessed to the point where pressure is
    being lost from the cylinder, while the other valves have hardly recessed at all.
    No hard and fast rules have been established to arrive at a satisfactory valve life. Each
    case, therefore, has to be painstakingly investigated, the cause or causes of the problem
    isolated, and remedial action taken. In order to analyse the wear mechanisms in detail
    and isolate the critical operating conditions, simulation of the valve wear process must
    be used. This has the added benefit of being cost effective and saving time.
    Based on the wear patterns observed, the fundamental mechanisms of valve wear can
    be determined. Once the fundamental mechanisms are understood, a viable model of
    valve wear can be developed that will speed up the solution of future valve wear
    problems and assist in the design of new engines.




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  • Gray Smoke From Exhaust

    For those who have high mobility and relies heavily on private automobiles, would not only be able and capable than the wheel chair. Know the vehicle that became the most dependable sidekick also requires attention not less.
    Unfortunately, sometimes due to the high level of activity and energy draining activities throughout the week, it's hard to find spare time to give more attention to this one friend. Until symptoms appear malfunction of vehicle components, then we realized the lack of attention in terms of vehicle maintenance.
    No need to panic, as long as you can immediately identify malfunctions what happened to kendaraan.Nah, general conditions common malfunctions are:
    * Smoke
    * Disturbance and needle indicator lights
    * Noda, leakage, excessive fluid
    * Tires
    * Lighting system
    * Body and paint
    * Wiper Problems
    Sometimes the disorder is actually trivial, simply because ketida mengertian, problem-maslaah panikk rider can make, and generally struck a woman rider.
    ASAP
    Malfunctioning machines cause smoke when the vehicle we operate, could be:
    * Excess Smoke From Exhaust
    * Gray Smoke From Exhaust
    * White Smoke and Air Out Of Exhaust
    * Black Smoke From Exhaust
    * The smoke from the engine hood
    * White smoke accompanied by the smell of burning rubber
    * Smoke Of Wheels
    Excess Smoke From Exhaust
    You can see the oil is below the level of oil change, and unprecedented. Oil Well that also burned in the engine combustion process that is the emergence of excessive smoke. These conditions will make the vehicle does not have the power runway as usual. If allowed to go on, then for the long term will bother you. What enables this to occur are:
    1. PCV system is not functioning properly.
    2. Machine is broken in several places.
    3. Seal katuk worn.
    4. Engine piston ring worn out.
    Gray Smoke From Exhaust
    The emergence of gray smoke when the vehicle distater, and sometimes these spaces exist after the machine finished masah heated though tidka too real. You pelu observe whether the excess smoke in this condition was gradually getting worse because it indicates the level of damage.
    Possible Cause:
    1. Worn piston rings.
    2. Valve which began worn worn valve guides.
    3. Damaged or defective valve worn valve guides. [ERF / eng]
    White Smoke and Air Out Of Exhaust
    You can tell from the number of smoke coming out from the exhaust accompanied by water which continues even though the car has been heated long enough. Like other excess smoke, this will be a serious problem if left there for the long term.
    Possible Cause:
    1. The presence of fluid (oil) into the manifold transmission.
    2. Gaskets from cylinder engine replaced it's time
    3. Engine cylinder head covered with something, or even experience
    cracks.
    4. The existence of cracks in engine blocks.
    Black Smoke From Exhaust
    If smoke comes out of your vehicle exhaust is black and quite thick, certainly not you just could see it clearly, but also other road users who would "disturbed". The more severe the problem of your machine, then automatically this smoke will be more black and thick.
    Possible Cause:
    1. If the vehicle still uses carburetors, could be a choke
    carburetor is closed.
    2. The existence of leaks in the fuel injection system.
    3. Blockage of water filters.
    4. Interference to ignition engine.
    Smoke From Engine Hood
    If this happens, usually make the driver panicked, especially if it was during the super street jam. Not the panic that you need, but attention! Mean machine that has troubled you pay attention for a long time.
    Possible Cause:
    1. If the smell of smoke arising from oil, there is
    engine oil leak.
    2. If white smoke arising from the color, could be the
    radiator leak
    3. If black or blue smoke flavor accompanied
    sting, that's a sign of electrical disturbance and
    note whether there is a burning cable. [ERF / eng]
    Accompanied White Smoke Burned Rubber Odor
    This includes one of the fastest disturbance smoke panicked motorists. And rightly you panic, but still, you need to identify possible causes. If you are in the middle of the highway, tepikan vehicles that do not immediately place meinbulkan congestion for other road users. Turn off the engine immediately and locate the origin of the odor like burning rubber. If you find there is a burning, of course you should take to extinguish the new fire emergency to find out the cause of the fire. The complexity, the engine can suddenly vehicle on fire without any previous signs.
    Possible Cause:
    1. Fan belt is loose and interfere with the function of the machine
    other.
    2. Engine overheating
    3. The existence of a short circuit in the electrical system of vehicle
    4. Damage to the machine that has a fan belt.
    Smoke Of Wheels
    You can only see the smoke that appears when you have kendarran kemudiakan in the stop position. When the vehicle is running, it may be difficult to distinguish asapa with smoke emerging from the wheel. Do not think that the emergence of smoke from the wheels of a sudden this happened. In fact already there is damage you do not know, and over time become semkain severe.
    Possible Cause:
    1. Disc brake caliper from highly corrupted
    2. Hand brake is still in a state of active (not removed when
    driven vehicles).
    3. The presence of damage to the brake drum.
    4. Rotor brake overheat.





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  • Valves and seats

    Valves are used to control gas flow to and from cylinders in automotive internal combustion engines. The most common type of valve used is the poppet valve. The valve itself consists of a disc-shaped head having a stem extending from its centre at one side.
    The edge of the head on the side nearest the stem is accurately ground at an angle – usually 45 degrees, but sometimes 30 degrees, to form the seating face. When the valve is closed, the face is pressed in contact with a similarly ground seat. It is the contact conditions and loading at this interface that will have the largest influence on the rate at which valve and seat wear will occur, so understanding these is a key in determining the mechanisms that cause valve recession.






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  • As a result of hastily rushed off the engine

    And these bad habits have a negative impact on future
    One of the bad habits of the driver is in a hurry turn off your vehicle engine when parked. And these bad habits have negatively impacted in the future. Consider the following description:

    * When turning off the engine do not directly contact to the off position and menggeber gas-Geber. It is very influential in the engine lubrication. At high rotation engines require better lubrication. But because it is directly switched off although there was still some oil on the bore wall (cylinder houses), lubrication is reduced. If the machine will often be worn or broken.

    * The machine is turned off immediately after lauched at high speeds are less precise way. Since that time the kitchen runway just worked harder than the journey. In case of high-temperature engines, of the components in it is still expanding, if it suddenly turned off it will damage the cylinder wall.

    * In addition the machine is required to continuously high rotation certainly experience stress. These conditions make the state machinery is not yet stable.

    * The habit of turning off the engine suddenly after traveling at high speed can cause the piston rings wear faster. Further spread to a decrease in compression so that the power to suck.

    * To turn off the engine when it let stand a round of iddling a while until the machine is really in a stationary state. After that turn the ignition to the off position


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  • Reducing Tractive Forces

    The tractive forces that a vehicle must overcome to stay in motion include:
    Aerodynamic drag, the force of air friction on the body surfaces of the vehicle. Aerodynamic drag averages
    about 30 percent of total tractive forces, and is highest during fast highway driving (drag is directly  proportional to the square of speed,1 so if speed doubles, the drag force quadruples). Drag forces may be reduced by reducing the frontal area of the vehicle, smoothing out body surfaces and adjusting the body’s basic shape, covering the vehicle’s underbody, and taking other measures that help air move freely past the vehicle; The efficiency of a vehicle’s aerodynamic design is measured by the product of the drag coefficient CD and the frontal area, which designers seek to minimize. The CD of current U.S. automobiles averages about 0.33, with the best mass-produced vehicles achieving about 0.28. Experimental vehicles have achieved extraordinarily low CDS of 0.15 or better, but these low values have substantial costs in reduced passenger and cargo space,2 added complexity and weight in cooling systems, low ground clearance, and so forth. Most automakers view a CD of 0.25 as a feasible target for the next 10 to 20 years for an intermediate-sized sedan; this would yield about a 6 percent improvement in fuel economy from current average vehicles. Judging by some of the less-radical experimental vehicle designs, however, a more ambitious CD of 0.22, yielding about a 7 percent improvement in fuel economy, appears to be possible. Most automakers are, however, skeptical of the feasibility of a CD this low.
    l Rolling resistance, the resistive forces between the tires and the road. These forces also average about 30
    percent of total tractive force, and are of approximately equal importance in city and highway driving. Rolling
    resistance may be reduced by: 1 ) redesigning tires and tire materials to minimize the energy lost as the tire
    flexes, 2) lowering vehicle weight (see below), and 3) redesigning wheel bearings and seals. A major concern in
    tire redesign is to avoid compromising tire durability and handling capabilities.
    The rolling resistance coefficient (RRC), like the aerodynamic drag coefficient, is a measure of the resistance to
    a vehicle’s movement—in this case, of the tires. Current mass-market (not performance-oriented) tires have
    RRCs of 0.008-0.010. By 2005, a 30 percent reduction in RRC, yielding about a 5 percent fuel economy
    improvement, should be possible with significant investments in research on tire design and materials and
    chassis technology. By 2015, an RRC of 0.005 may be possible, yielding a total 8 percent improvement in fuel
    economy over current levels.3
    . Inertial force, the resistance of vehicle mass to acceleration or grade-climbing. This force is about 40 percent of
    total tractive forces, on average, and is largest in city driving and hill-climbing. Inertial force is reduced by
    making the vehicle lighter—a 10 percent weight reduction yields as much as a 6 percent reduction in fuel
    consumption, if performance is held constant and the vehicle design carefully handled.

    Although major reductions in vehicle weight have occurred since the 1970s, there remains substantial further
    potential, by substituting lightweight materials—primarily improved high-strength steel, aluminum and, possibly,
    composites—and by structural redesign using supercomputers. The complexity of vehicle structural design to
    assure safety and the lack of industry experience with the new materials demand a careful program of testing and
    analysis, so that even aluminum will be introduced cautiously; an optimized design in a mass-market vehicle
    making full use of aluminum’s unique properties—and, therefore, achieving maximum weight savings—must
    probably wait until after 2005. By 2005, the Office of Technology Assessment projects that a highly optimized steel
    body with aluminum engine could achieve a 15 percent weight reduction over 1995 norms; an aluminum intensive
    body (but not an optimized, “clean sheet” design) could achieve a 20 percent weight reduction, at a price increment
    of about $1,500 for a mid-size car. By 2015, an optimized aluminum design could achieve a 30 percent weight
    reduction, at a similar $1,500 price. /f the severe manufacturing challenges of mass producing carbon fiber
    composites are overcome, a 40 percent weight savings could be achieved, though probably at high costs (an
    estimated $2,000 to $8,000 for an intermediate auto). Such a 40 percent weight reduction might increase fuel
    economy by one-third.


    Advanced Automotive Technology: Visions
    of a Super-Efficient Family Car
    OTA-ETI-638
    GPO stock #052-003-01440-8



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    Fill in the appropriate type of freon air conditioning compressor

    There are two types of freon the most widely circulated in Indonesia, namely R 12 and R 134. This relates to the emissions of CFCs generated, R 12 is an old product and do not include net interest environment. While the R 134, supposedly as an environmentally friendly product.

    Compressor cars loaded with Freon Freon R 12 R 134, the compressor is threatened broken because there is pressure difference between the two types of compounds. In addition, the hoses are also threatened leaks, broken cracked up. Work produced compressor compression should also be weakened. Entered R 134 to R type compressor with freon 12, also requires oil substitute. Was when the compressor has a specification R 134 and forced to get a charging R 12, then the AC will not work optimally. A number of states as a cold air-conditioning repair shop it would be less sharp. This is because it happened Speck down. And these events most often occur due to price quote can be made cheaper.

    Actually Perform compressor oil change habits is very limited freon do the charging is not recommended. If freon is reduced then it means there is a leak in one part of a series of conditioning the cabin. Therefore examination of the entire tract should be done as soon as the AC was cold and the freon is reduced.



    But when forced limited freon charge in an emergency, but need to know certain types of freon that is loaded, have also substitute for oil in the compressor. This is important, because if there is leakage of the lubricant in the compressor is also reduced and dirty. Once the oil is replaced, by itself workshop will also memvakum freon compressor before filling.


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  • Your Car AC Circulation Device

    Know your circulation device AC and damage anything that could happen on this device
    If your car air conditioner works already weakened alias no longer blow cold with the maximum, not necessarily the cause of the freon that must be filled again. Damage to one of the devices can cause the circulation of air conditioning air conditioning not cold anymore and freon needed. For that recognize some circulation device AC and damage anything that could happen in this device which affects the work of your car air conditioner:

    a) Evaporator

    • Function: to change the liquid Freon into cold gas. In this device the liquid freon cooling process occurs.

    • Damage: a leak from the dirt that has accumulated thus causing corrosion / porous.



    b) Thermostat

    • Function: to distribute electrical power to the compressor automatically. The sensor detects the temperature on the thermostat in the evaporator according to the setting. If the thermostat is damaged then the evaporator can freeze because the electric current breaker is not working.

    • Damage: marked by the release of smoke from the AC grid and the presence of water drops like dew dripping from the evaporator.

    c) Dryer

    • Function: a place to store temporary freon after thawed by then supplied to the condenser to the evaporator. Another function is as a filter for impurities in the air circulation system.

    • Damage: blockage of the dryer by a heap of dirt carried by the condenser. When the dryer is broken then the tribe AC ​​becomes unstable and changeable.

    d) Expansion Valve

    • Functions: spraying the liquid Freon from dyer to the evaporator with a low temperature and pressure.

    • Damage: expansion valve can be damaged if the dryer is also damaged by bringing dirt to go in so the damage could spread to the evaporator which participate exposed to dirt.

    e) Condenser

    • Function: Change the Freon into a high-pressure fluids and high temperature.

    • Damage: Can leak, dirt dust and mud can also damage these components.

    f) Compressor

    • Function: Pressing the liquid Freon into the condenser.

    • Damage: Leaking seals, the weakening of the magnetic clutch, reduced oil compressor. If there is damage is usually accompanied by signs of the emergence of noise when the AC in the state on.


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  • Do not Often Radiator Opening Cover

    One way to avoid overheating

    This simple warning delivered Emergency Roadside Assistance (ERA) AstraWorld. Preferably, the radiator cap does not open the lid too often. Open the lid is made at the time drain water to the radiator. Because, too often open the radiator cap radiator cap will increase the chances of damaged.

    If there is damage to the radiator cap, auto component work is disrupted. One possibility that emerged later when a damaged radiator cap is overheating, engine temperatures are above normal limits.

    We certainly have memorized when the engine overheating. Because of the heat that exceeds tolerance, the engine may not sound normal, less powerful, wasteful of fuel, even strike in the middle of the road.

    Indeed there are many things that cause overheating. In essence these conditions arise because the cooling system not working properly. In some cases AstraWorld ERA found that overheating was gradually sticking out because there is a problem on the radiator cap.

    In terms of function, the radiator cap is an equal role in terms of keeping the engine temperature. This component will maintain the volume of water in the engine cooling system.

    The role was run by the valves on the radiator cap. There are two valves in this component are: tap valve and vacuum valve. Both these valves which alternately sucking out and rotates so that water from a reservoir tank (reserve tank) to the radiator.

    Well, the two valves on the radiator cap is likely to be damaged if the radiator cap is often open. Because of the damage, water circulation then becomes not good. What's worse, the volume gradually decreases because of the radiator water spilled out through the tank reservoir.
    Lack of water is then lead to overheating.

    Therefore, to detect the occurrence of damage to the radiator cap can be done by looking at the water reservoir tank. Check water levels in the tank. If the reserve tank is always full (even water out of the hose in the reservoir tank cap), this is a sign that the radiator cap had to be replaced.





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